Memory and Cognition
Working Memory The mental workspace where you hold and manipulate information during thinking. Limited capacity — roughly 4-7 items at once.
Long-term Memory Storage of knowledge and experiences over extended periods. Essentially unlimited capacity.
Procedural Memory Memory for skills and habits — how to do things. Often unconscious.
Encoding The process of getting information into memory. Requires attention and processing.
Retrieval The process of accessing stored memories. Strengthens memories when successful.
Consolidation The process by which memories become stable in long-term storage. Occurs during sleep and rest.
Forgetting Curve Hermann Ebbinghaus's discovery that memory declines exponentially over time without review. Most forgetting happens quickly after learning.
Metacognition Thinking about thinking. Awareness of your own knowledge, understanding, and learning processes.
Learning Science
Active Recall The practice of retrieving information from memory rather than passively reviewing it. More effective for long-term retention.
Testing Effect The finding that testing yourself strengthens memory more than restudying. Retrieval practice enhances learning.
Spaced Repetition Reviewing material at increasing intervals over time. Exploits the spacing effect for durable memory.
Spacing Effect The finding that distributed practice produces better retention than massed practice.
Interleaving Mixing different topics or skills during practice rather than blocking. Harder but more effective.
Desirable Difficulty Challenges that slow learning in the moment but enhance long-term retention and transfer.
Transfer Applying learning from one context to another. Near transfer (similar contexts) is easier than far transfer (different contexts).
Elaborative Rehearsal Processing information meaningfully by connecting it to existing knowledge. More effective than rote repetition.
Understanding and Knowledge
Mental Model An internal representation of how something works. Enables explanation, prediction, and application.
Declarative Knowledge Knowledge of facts and concepts. Knowing that.
Procedural Knowledge Knowledge of how to do things. Knowing how.
Conditional Knowledge Knowledge of when and why to apply knowledge or skills.
Schema Organized knowledge structures that help interpret and remember information.
Chunking Organizing information into meaningful units, reducing load on working memory.
Prerequisites Knowledge or skills required before learning something new. Gaps in prerequisites make learning difficult.
Skill Acquisition
Deliberate Practice Focused practice targeting specific weaknesses, with immediate feedback, at the edge of ability. The most effective form of practice.
Cognitive Stage First stage of skill learning. Conscious, effortful, slow, with many errors.
Associative Stage Second stage. Less conscious, errors decrease, skill becomes more fluid.
Autonomous Stage Final stage. Automatic, fast, unconscious execution.
Plateau Period when improvement stalls despite continued practice. Often requires changing approach to break through.
Feedback Information about performance that enables adjustment. Essential for improvement.
Overlearning Continuing practice after achieving correct performance. Enhances automaticity and retention.
Learning Techniques
Feynman Technique Learning by explaining a concept in simple terms. Exposes gaps in understanding.
Socratic Method Learning through guided questioning that leads to discovery.
Scaffolding Temporary support provided during learning, gradually removed as competence develops.
Massed Practice Concentrated practice in a single session. Less effective than spaced practice for retention.
Blocked Practice Practicing one skill repeatedly before moving to another. Less effective than interleaved practice.
Variable Practice Practicing in different conditions and contexts. Builds more robust and transferable skills.
Study Tools
Flashcard A card with a prompt on one side and answer on the other. Used for active recall practice.
Anki Popular spaced repetition software that schedules flashcard review based on memory algorithms.
SRS (Spaced Repetition System) Any system that schedules review based on spaced repetition principles.
Mind Map Visual diagram showing relationships between concepts.
Summary Condensed version of material in your own words. Creates during study aids encoding.
AI Learning Terms
Prompt The input given to an AI to generate a response.
Tutor Mode Using AI as a personalized tutor — adapting explanations, checking understanding, asking questions.
Practice Coach Using AI to provide exercises and feedback for skill development.
Study Partner Using AI for discussion, quizzing, and collaborative exploration.
Hallucination When AI generates plausible-sounding but incorrect information. Requires verification.
Educational Psychology
Growth Mindset Belief that abilities can be developed through effort and practice. Associated with better learning outcomes.
Self-Efficacy Belief in your ability to succeed at specific tasks. Affects motivation and persistence.
Cognitive Load The amount of information being processed in working memory. When overloaded, learning fails.
Intrinsic Motivation Motivation from interest and enjoyment in the task itself.
Extrinsic Motivation Motivation from external rewards or pressures.
Zone of Proximal Development The range of tasks learnable with guidance but not yet independently. Where learning is most productive.
Learning Process Terms
Orientation Initial phase of learning a new subject. Understanding the landscape before diving in.
Foundation Building Learning the core concepts that everything else depends on.
Consolidation Integrating and solidifying learning. Making knowledge coherent and retained.
Application Using learned knowledge or skills in real or realistic situations.
Maintenance Ongoing review and practice to retain learning over time.
Learning Curve The rate of learning over time or practice. Initially steep, then flattening.
Mastery High level of competence achieved through extensive learning and practice.